Introduction
Cameroon is a country situated in Central Africa and bordered by Nigeria, Chad, Central African Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon and Congo. It has a low-income with a rapidly increasing population estimated at about 20 million people. It is a multilingual country which habors about 250 languages. These include 55 Afro-Asiatic languages, two Nilo-Saharan languages, four Ubangian languages, and 169 Niger-Congo languages. This latter group comprises one Senegambian language (Fulfulde), 28 Adamawa languages and 142 Benue-Congo languages (130 of which are Bantu languages). Cameroon also has 2 official languages, English and French that are legacies of the Franco-British rule in Cameroon following the First World War and independence (Kouega 2007). It also has a lingua-franca, the Cameroon Pidgin English mostly used by speakers with no native language in common.
Specifically, this work addresses the issues of language use and spread, language policy and planning, and maintaining and prospects. There is a clear cut difference between language policy and language planning but the two work hand in glove. Language policy on one hand has to do with decisions or regulations about the status, use, domains, and territories of language(s) and the rights of speakers of the languages in question. It could also be defined as expressions of a long-lasting ‘linguistic culture’ that is, cultural myths and values pertaining to the types of linguistic accommodations, programs, and efforts that are in accord with the brunt of local historical experience and aspiration (Schiffman 1996). On the other hand, language planning refers to measures taken by official agencies to influence the use of one or more languages in a particular speech community. In such a multilingual society like Cameroon, the idea of language planning and policy becomes an intricate one because of its quality of being complex due to its battles on how to cope effectively with it highly multilingual situation.
The language policy and planning in Cameroon could be traced to the colonial period, a period characterized by language conflict between the colonial administrators and the missionaries. In Cameroon today, the problem of language planning and policy could be attributed to the facts like, unequal distribution in the usage of English and French as official languages which affects negatively the policy of official language bilingualism, no recognition and promotion of indigenous languages, and the absence of a nation-wide lingua-franca with a common linguistic idiom.
In this exercise, it will be important to look at the roles played by various domains in language policy and planning in Cameroon, in order to have a clear view of how this policy functions.
i) Role played by Education in the Language policy and planning
After independence, French and English were adopted as the official languages. Official bilingualism was instituted in the new Federal Republic ‘neutral’ foreign language option was accepted to avoid language conflict and financial implication of learning other languages (Fonlon, 1963). Early bilingualism was adopted for the Cameroonian school child that is English and French introduced in the early years of primary education; and the indigenous languages virtually had no place in early years of post-independence. In 1998, a decree which was later promulgated into the law by the Head of State was passed; with special emphasis on the teaching of national languages, but was a mere statement because nothing was done to implement it. The constitution adopted for language policy in Cameroon in article three of law no. 98/044 of April 1998 stipulates that “the state shall institute bilingualism at all levels of education as a factor of national unity and integration” (République du Cameroun 1998a). These schools separate the Anglophone and francophone sections and therefore do not provide an equilibrium in the pursuit of bilingualism.
In order to give more value to indigenous languages in Cameroon, Kouega (2018) advocates for the promotion of the mother tongue in a butte to institutionalize a national language or two in the country in the long run. By so doing, he proposes that the learning of the mother tongue should be included in the syllabus from primary school. He suggests that French for the Anglo-Saxon system should begin in form one instead of class one, while English for the Francophone section begins at sixième (form 1 francophone). In other words French should be replaced in the primary school with two indigenous languages. Kouega’s suggestion can go a long way to the seclusion of some Cameroonian languages.
ii) Role played by Government
From the government’s point of view, language policy and planning is limited to the use of English and French within the governing domains and formal transactions within public and private domains (Ayafor, 2005). The government has not been successful in promoting indigenous languages talk less of making one of them a national languages. Majority of its speeches have always been French and just a few are made in English. Even when government authorities visit local communities where a common mother tongue is shared, the message he passes is always either in French, English or better still the Pidgin English. The government has failed in creating schools where students can be trained as translators to speak different indigenous languages in order to facilitate its growth.
Cameroon is ironically considered “Africa in miniature” but has failed to promote one of its main cultural heritage which comes through the use of indigenous languages. Rather, other African countries such as Nigeria has made some of its indigenous languages to be used as national languages and it is playing a great role in maintaining their identity of origin. These Nigerian national languages include Igbo, Yoruba, Hausa and Fulfulde. Cameroon is still lacking in the formal use of indigenous languages and in the use of English language in some strategic areas as far the language policy is concerned. The only recognized means through which the government has sustained a few indigenous languages from dying is through the setting up of ten provincial radio stations where some indigenous languages are widely spoken.
iii) Role played by language policy makers
These are authorities assigned to make decisions about the status and use of one or more languages in society. The policy may be overt, that is explicitly stating language rights in legal documents or covert, that is not mentioning any language in documents or otherwise, thus being silent about languages and their role in the society (Schiffman 2000). In Cameroon, the policy making body is overt meaning that various laws and decrees regulating the official language policy were stated and adopted. The constitution stipulates that official languages shall be French and English, but adds that citizens shall endeavour to protect and promote the national languages. This document also guarantees inter alia, the protection of minorities and indigenous people’s rights and the ratification of numerous human rights conventions. In addition, it states that Cameroon is a decentralized state which recognizes traditional values (République du Cameroun 1998: Part 1, Section 3).
Language plays a vital role in the achievement of the national unity, stability and development of a country. This explains why the decision as to what type of language policy to adopt is very crucial. Language policy makers in Cameroon are faced with this problem and have not been able to resolve it for decades. These policy makers have difficulties in implementing an effective and balanced language policy partly because of the country’s bicultural colonial identity. From the above analysis, Cameroon has preferred foreign languages to the detriment of its own indigenous languages. The policy makers have left many individuals worried, given that it has failed to meet their expectations. Chiatoh asserts that this policy leaves much to be desired in terms of national unity, stability and development, given its lifespan of over forty years in Cameroon. He argues that these linguistic choices have “consciously or unconsciously discarded the linguistic and cultural identities of the people, thereby marginalizing them in the mainstream of decision-making” (2006; 44). Therefore, the decision of language policy makers has also affected education, administrative, parliament, mass media, and even international communication because French dominates in all these areas even though their aim is to promote effective bilingualism.
iv) Role played by the Media in language policy and planning
Just like many other domains, French plays a major role in media in Cameroon. Taking a close examination of the programs that are presented on television screens and radio broadcast, one will better understand this. Very few programs are broadcast in English, talk less of pidgin or the mother tongue. For example, the state-run national television and radio company Cameroon Radio Television (CRTV), reflects the official language policy of Cameroon, with programs uniquely in French and English. Even the state-owned daily newspaper Cameroon Tribune is bilingual and is edited every day in French and once in a week in English. The state runs ten provincial radio stations. These encourage the promotion of languages widely spoken in the province. National languages were introduced in 1956, when Ewondo broadcasts began. Subsequently, other languages were introduced.
The decisions about which languages to be used and the number of languages are now agreed upon between CRTV and the ministries in charge of information, communication and culture (Tabi 2000). There are only few directives from the Minister of Communication regarding language use in the media. The language used in doing advertisement has mostly been the official languages with French playing a major role.
v) Role played by the society in language policy and planning
The society also plays a great role in the language policy in Cameroon as to ‘who’ speaks ‘what’ or ‘where’. A greater portion of the society has reduced languages in Cameroon to oral usage and more specifically, can be considered to be mainly restricted to family and village life. Indigenous languages are mostly used in local communities and it reflects traditional knowledge and heritage. There are changes in the use of the indigenous languages in domestic situations. Bitjaa Kody (2001a; 2005) asserts that the national languages of Cameroon are losing ground to the official languages, mainly French. The loss of indigenous languages in urban areas is also linked to values attached to languages. In urban areas indigenous languages have little or no traditional function.
In health care there are serious linguistic obstacles to overcome. According to a study by Chai (2001; 148) 60 percent of doctors (mostly Anglophones) were forced by the circumstances to communicate in a language which was their third best language. 92 percent of the doctors said that the patients could not describes their conditions well enough to be understood by the doctors because they had to use a language which was only second or third best them. According to the same study, 76 percent of the patients did not understand the doctors when they spoke or asked questions. 10 percent of the patients could not speak either of the official languages French and English. Even in Yaounde, where one finds the highest concentration of francophones in the country, not everybody spoke and understood French. The society to an extend has knowledge on the value in maintaining languages spoken or used by minor groups including the non-standard forms like pidgins and play a great role in reducing language death.
Conclusion
From the above analysis, one would conclude that the language policy and planning in Cameroon today is indeed a complex one. Apparently, the country is striving for a unique state of bilingualism but unfortunately the framework of bilingualism is not acquired as planned. It is instead acquired in another vein that is, citizens struggling to speak one official language (either French or English) and one indigenous language. If language policy makers in Cameroon do not take effective measures to uphold indigenous languages, these languages might face seclusion and in the long run, die out completely.
References
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